My thinking has been highly influenced by the work of Harvard educator, Robert Kegan. In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life (1994) presents a meta-theory of the organizing principles we bring to our thoughts, feelings, and relationships. It is a neo-Piagetian approach where he "took the idea of such principles as mental organization and extended its 'breadth' (beyond thinking to affective, interpersonal, and intrapersonal realms) and its length (beyond childhood to adulthood)" (p. 29).

Subject-object theory examines the "unselfconscious development of successively more complex principles for organizing experience" (p. 29), whereby the subjective experience transmutes into ones objective experience. An individual evolves the ability to reflect on what previously simply "was." The evolution of subject to object generates a new subjective experience which then must be organized.

In fact, transforming our epistemologies, liberating ourselves from that in which we were embedded, making what was subject into object so that we can "have it" rather than "be had" by it--this is the most powerful way I know to conceptualize the growth of the mind (p. 34).

Principles are not only developmentally related, but each contains the previous. "Each successive principle 'goes meta' on the last; each is 'at a whole different order' of consciousness" (p. 34). Each epistemological evolution "is a qualitatively different order of consciousness, because the former order of consciousness is transformed from whole to part, from the very system of knowing to an element in a new system, from subject to object" (p. 28). "One does not simply replace the other, nor is the relation merely additive or cumulative, an accretion of skills. Rather, the relation is transformative, qualitative, and incorporative" (p. 33).

The principles refer to the form in which organization occurs, not the content of what is organized. Increased complexity of organization does not mean increased worth or value. Kegan carefully distinguishes between intellectual ability and the epistemology of its organization. He uses an analogy to illustrate this, comparing the ability to drive a car with an automatic transmission and the ability to drive with standard stick-shift transmission. He goes on to discuss the function of changing gears; it exists simply as an external event for the automatic driver, whereas the standard-shift drivers are able to take responsibility for, and reflect upon the function.

Kegan situates the epistemological principles within historical moments, from traditional to post-modern, and suggests that most of us struggle to make the transition into functional modernism. In discussions of parenting, partnering, work, psychotherapy, and education, he describes epistemological transformation as the "hidden curriculum." I concur with his "belief that the unrecognized epistemological dimension of adult life is a promising source of clues to many new mysteries" (p. 129).

Furthermore, subject-object theory and Kegan's thinking about it are remarkably consistent with Buddhist thought. For me, this has meant congruence across my work and Buddhism. By way of example, the following passages address Mind, non-self, attachment, and the notion of consciousness:

By now it should be clear that when I refer to "mind" or "mental" or "knowing" I am not referring to thinking processes alone. I am referring to the person's meaning-constructive or meaning-organizational capacities. I am referring to the selective, interpretive, executive, construing capacities that psychologists have historically associated with the "ego" or the "self" (p. 29).

It is as faithful to the self-psychology of the West as to the "wisdom literature" of the East. The roshis and lamas speak to the growth of the mind in terms of our developing ability to relate to what we were formerly attached to. The experiencing that our subject-object principle enables is very close to what both East and West mean by "consciousness," and that is the way I intend the term throughout this book (p. 34).

Kegan, Robert. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 

Buddhism offers a psychology - an understanding of how the mind works - that has been applied for over 2,500 years in both study and meditative practice. It could be most succinctly described as concerned with the context of mind, while western psychology is interested in the contents of mind. Classical Buddhist thinking is taught in the southeast Asian tradition of Theravada, or "Way of the Elders." This lineage uses the earliest texts of the Buddha's teachings, before they metamorphosed into Mahayana or Vajrayana forms currently known in Zen and Tibetan Budddhism.

What Is Different?

Classical Buddhist thought offers a fundamentally different context than that of Western culture. In my work, this means that my interventions with individuals or groups often have different meaning and invite/provoke people to perceive their own experience in new/different ways. This, in turn, opens possibilities. At the very least, this illuminates some of the invisible assumptions of Western culture. Some basic differences are:

• "heart" and "mind" are the same thing; there is one word for both. Given that our experience is so fragmented, it is a challenge for those of Western culture to imagine functional unity.
• there is no God, Supreme Being, goddesses, gods, or Higher Power. There is only the full experience of living every moment in connection with all beings; spirituality is the lived experience. This means that there is no "Big Boss" to answer prayers, grant wishes, or intervene; there is no "outside" intervention. This is inherently different from much of Judeo-Christian culture - and most others. While often misperceived as nihilistic, it holds individuals solely responsible for their own lives and actions.
• there is neither soul nor spirit. There is not a discrete part of us that contains inherent goodness; we have the responsibility to integrate that into each moment of our lives. Similarly, there is nothing to survive past our own death. This is it! Life is fully in this moment, and every moment.
• hope and fear are viewed similarly. Unlike western philosophy which believes "hope" to be a virtue, classical Buddhism sees it as a way of fleeing from the present moment. When we fear, we fear a future action. When we hope, we hope for a future action. Our goal is to be wholely present now rather than fretting about the future.
• we are interconnected with everyone and everything; it is inherent to do no harm, as harming another means harming oneself. This differs greatly from Western individualism.

Definitions

This section is not meant to provide a comprehensive introduction to Buddhism, but to briefly explicate aspects which apply to my work. I will give short descriptions of the following:

• centrality of experience
• dukkha (suffering), anicca (impermanence), anatta (non-self)
• attachment, aversion, and delusion
• metta (loving-kindness)
• the Middle Path
• karma

Buddhist teachings emphasize the primacy of lived experience rather than intellectual analysis or metaphysical exploration. In the words of another teacher, "Ordinary human conditions are considered to be a state of arrested development." Buddhist psychology works to expose these basic misrepresentations experientially, and to find happiness which is not conditional. Western psychology teaches neither the nature of happiness nor how it is found.

Mindfulness is at the heart of the exploration of experience - practical training for individuals to use in every living moment, applicable in all circumstances. In the words of the Buddha: "Mindfulness, I declare, is all-helpful. All things can be mastered with mindfulness."

Dukkha. Generally translated to mean suffering, dukkha refers to the unsatisfactoriness inherent in all aspects of life, or the flawed nature of all that exists. It has been described as the Buddha's greatest wisdom, as he understood that the ordinary difficulties of life (i.e. sickness, old age and death, change, conditioned experience) did not necessarily have to result in suffering.

Pain is differentiated from suffering. It is our response to pain which creates suffering. Attachment, aversion, and delusion are noted as the causes of suffering; hence, release from suffering is possible as one attends to those habitual responses.

Simply put, Buddhism teaches the inherent nature of suffering, the way out of suffering, and that we are all interconnected through common suffering. It is not learned intellectually, but is available through inquiry of the lived experience.

Anicca. Anicca means change, or impermanence. It is the nature of the world that everything is in flux, and eventually results in dissolution. The teachings say that everything arises and passes away. A mountain, a plastic bag in a landfill, a human life, a breath, the wish for a cup of coffee. They arise and pass away at different rates, from geologic to instantaneous. The Buddha asked why change should necessarily cause suffering; mindfulness is the path to the answer.

Anatta. One of the key concepts of Buddhist psychology, anatta, or non-self, teaches that there is no permanent, abiding, or enduring Self. No soul, no essence, no spirit, no individual, no "me." These are merely concepts which reference habitual behaviour patterns. This understanding differs considerably from most western psychology.

Buddhism posits the notion that we become trapped by the idea of individual self-ness, causing suffering. The teachings recognize that attachment to the idea of self generates suffering. In turn, the self becomes defined by attachments. In a parody of Descartes, a student quipped, "I want, I need; therefore I Am."

Zen monk and teacher, Thich Nhat Hanh asks students to compare images of their child-self with their adult-self, and asks, "Which Self is real?" Functionally, I consider the "self" to be simply shorthand for the aggregated components of existence - thoughts, behaviours, actions, body, perceptions, consciousness, senses, and mental formations.

Attachment, aversion and delusion. These are also known as greed, hatred, and ignorance; the unhealthy attitudes. Mahayana Buddhism calls them the Three Poisons. They are contrasted to the healthy attitudes of detachment, loving-kindness, and wisdom.

Attachment simply means that we want more. Wanting more mashed potatoes, wanting a promotion, wanting better muscle-tone, wanting a bigger house, wanting to annex a nearby country. We crave something that we think will make life better. Aversion means that we don't want. Don't want to get out of bed in the morning, don't want to go to the gym, don't want to clean the in-basket, don't want to consider equal rights for all citizens. If we could just get rid of something, then life would be better! Delusion is spacing out, shutting one's eyes, dissociating, or ignoring. We can walk down a city street without really seeing beggars. We can watch TV ads about saving children's lives without really considering hunger and poverty. We can put the garbage cans out to the curb without really thinking about landfills and recycling.

These three attitudes are basic to humanity, and underly our every action. The cultivation of mindfulness changes our automatic responses, and allows us to make choices about whether or not we react to them. Mindfulness lets us have informed choice about our actions.

Metta. Generally translated as "loving-kindness," metta is etymologically derived from the Pali root for "friend." It is open-hearted well-wishing. Metta reminds us that everyone wishes to be happy, just as we do. Hardened criminals and dictators want to be happy. Our friends, people we don't like, and people we don't even know - they all just want to be happy. As both teaching and meditation practice, metta cultivates the inter-connection between all beings.

The Middle Path. The Buddha's first sermon after he achieved Enlightenment was on dukkha and the Middle Path. While he had experienced both kingly spendour and asceticism to the edge of death, he eventually learned that the Middle Path was the correct way. The teachings of the Middle Path stress balance and moderation in all things.

Karma. Simply stated, karma means that one is morally responsible for one's actions. It literally means, "action," (Sanskrit; Pali kamma) and volition is its essence. Buddhist thinking recognizes that all current actions are conditioned by previous actions, and teaches the importance of applying volition choicefully. Classically, karma includes the concept of rebirth; practically, it emphasizes the moment-to-moment actions of daily life.

In its simplest form, we can recognize that past actions affect current behaviour. Refusing to "buckle up" can result in head injury if there's an accident. A scholarship could be awarded to a student who chose study over socializing. Having too many cocktails can mean a period of months without a driver's license.

Mindfulness provides the means by which we can choose skillful or wholesome actions, rather than actions conditioned by previous events. For example, in the midst of rush-hour freeway traffic a car in the right lane cuts in front of a hurried driver in the centre lane without signalling the lane-change. It's not uncommon to utter a snarl and honk the horn - both unskillful actions done in anger. And a moment later, when another car signals from the left, wishing to merge into the centre lane, it's most likely that the centre-lane driver will refuse to yield. Rather, the driver may move closer to the car in front, denying space to the merging vehicle. The unskillful action of refusing to yield has resulted from the anger of the previous action! Mindfulness makes room for practical alternatives to unskillful actions.

Metaphor

While not specifically part of the psychology, metaphor is a common aspect of Buddhist teaching. The Buddha frequently taught in metaphor; the well-known story of the blind men and the elephant is cited in early texts. Metaphor is a powerful way to explicate simultaneously at different levels, and therefore expand mental function.

My work uses metaphor extensively, including Schön's notion of generative metaphor. It provides yet another way of cultivating new thinking.
 
 
 

The Dayak people of Borneo live in impressive longhouses which accommodate up to 500 people. This concentration of people led the World Health Organization to attempt to kill malarial mosquitoes by spraying the houses with DDT. This spraying program markedly improved the health of the Dayak people, but it set in motion an undesirable set of unexpected consequences.

The thatched houses were the home of a small community of cockroaches, lizards, and cats. The cockroaches picked up the DDT. The lizards ate the cockroaches, and the cats ate the lizards. The concentration of DDT (through a process called biological amplification) was fatal to the cats. With the cats gone, woodland rats invaded the houses and brought with them fleas, lice, other parasites, and sylvatic plague. The rats had been held in check by the cats, though this did not become apparent until the cats were gone. Eventually, the Royal Air Force was called upon to parachute cats into the isolated villages in order to restore complexity and provide for biological control of rats.

The DDT also killed parasites and predators that had previously controlled a species of small caterpillar and prevented them from seriously damaging the thatched roofs. The caterpillars were now free to increase their number, and the roofs began to collapse. The trade-off consisted of malaria for poor housing and sylvatic plague. The thrust of the example is two-fold. It points out the consequences, often unexpected, of interventions that dramatically simplify a complex system. And, it demonstrates that even where a simplifying intervention is beneficial and necessary, there can still be unexpected and negative side effects.

from Michael Goldberg, On systemic balance: Flexibility and stability in social, economic, and environmental systems. p. 14.

Complex systems may be viewed as nested, interactive contexts. Senge (1990) urges us to think in "loops," not lines. In this way, it is possible to not only consider the contexts, but to enliven them, and examine the dynamic interactions among elements in the system. Contexts are not merely backdrops against which events occur, but create interactive fields. "We've been playing with 'vast networks of interference patterns,' with 'the continuous dance of energy.' The world is not a thing. It's a complex, never-ending, always changing tapestry" (Wheatley, 1994; p. 38).

When a complex situation is approached with technical rationality, reductionism, and linear logic, we cannot help but misunderstand, mis-diagnose, and mis-treat, as in the cats-and-caterpillars example. Sometimes, we ignore the intuitive; sometimes we ignore the counter-intuitive.

The following is a very brief summary of from Hutchins' (1996) "clear, concise, compelling" book, which itself presents a summary of the field. Important qualities of complex systems are:

• wholeness and interconnectedness. Complex systems require that we look at wholes, rather than parts. This means "both/and" instead of "either/or."
• emergence. A system has meaning only in the context of other systems. As such, "its identity only emerges in the larger context of the systems that surround it" ( ibid, p. 39).
• dynamic structure. Examples include negative, double, and delayed feedback loops. This is illustrated by Peter Senge's archetypal models in his book on management, The fifth discipline.
• open boundaries. A complex system can "exchange information, energy and matter across its boundaries" (ibid, p. 103).
• self-regulation and self-organization. Such a system "(a) regenerates (recreates) itself by reproducing the processes that produced it in the first place and by (b) defining its own boundaries" (ibid, p. 122).

Using systems thinking, we can think about the dynamical causes of individual and organizational difficulties. "Behind 'symptoms' is a dynamical system at work" (Masterpasqua and Perna; 1997; p. 279) In the words of Michael Goldberg, "we need to define issues more broadly to avoid falling into the trap of narrow definitions leading to narrow solutions and broad, unanticipated problems" (1989; p. 163).

Practitioners who think systemically display qualities that are at the leading edge, perhaps visionary. They work in unconventional ways, within what may be a new paradigm. Systemic thinking and Schön's reflective practice are wonderfully congruent. Schön speaks about such "messy" practice in a delightful metaphor of landscape:

In the varied topography of professional practice, there is a high, hard ground where practitioners can make effective use of research-based theory and technique, and there is the swampy lowland where problems are confusing "messes" incapable of technical solution. ...in the swamp are the problems of greatest human concern. ... There are those who choose the swampy lowlands. They deliberately involve themselves in messy but crucially important problems, and when asked to describe their methods of inquiry, they speak of experience, trial and error, intuition, and muddling through (Schön, 1983; p. 42).

Goldberg, Michael A. 1989. On systemic balance: Flexibility and stability in social, economic, and environmental systems. Praeger: New York.

Hutchins, C. Larry. (1996). Systemic thinking: Solving complex problems. Aurora, CO: Professional Development Systems

Masterpasqua, Frank and Phyllis A. Perna. (1997). The psychological meaning of chaos: Translating theory into practise. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Schön, Peter. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic

Senge, Peter M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday

Wheatley, Margaret. (1994). Leadership and the new science: Learning about organization from an orderly universe. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
 

New Physics has brought clarity to the word, chaos, "the science of change" (Briggs and Peat, 1999). It does not mean complete randomness, an absolute lack of structure, noise, confusion, or formlessness. Chaos means order without predictability, or constrained randomness. This is a difficult concept for us to embrace because the emphasis on prediction is a powerful force in Western society - in science, education, management, psychology...

We, like the magicians of old, have been hooked on prediction. For three centuries, we've been planning, predicting, analyzing the world. We've held onto an intense belief in cause and effect. (Wheatley, 1994; p. 26).

Perhaps the most compelling aspect that the study of chaos has revealed is the relationship between order and disorder. Complex systems in chaos have the capacity to re-order themselves at a higher level of structural integration! "Order can arise out of chaos and allow for adaptation, creativity, and self-renewal" (Masterpasqua and Perna, 1997; p. 199). Order and disorder are two sides of the same coin. A system experiences disorder, moves to chaos, and out of that chaos evolves the next level of order. Our challenge is to embrace chaos in order to understand change, because "It is hard to welcome disorder as a full partner in the search for order when we have expended such effort to bar it from the gates" (Wheatley, 1994; p. 32).

This challenge asks us to find ways of being that are contrary to Western culture. It is difficult for us to acknowledge that "individuals most capable of adaptation and growth are those poised at the edge of chaos" (Masterpasqua and Perna, 1997; p. 37). It asks a lot of us to know that "it is necessary to dis-organize before re-organizing" (ibid; p. 103). "Stability and order," rather than "disequilibrium, complexity, and chaos" have been seen as hallmarks of well-being (ibid; p. 36). Chaos asks us to open up to new possibilities, to the Unknown. "In fact, chaos's most timeless lesson may be that it reenchants us with mystery" (Briggs and Peat, 1999; p. 170).

Briggs, John and F. David Peat. (1999). Seven life lessons of chaos: Timeless wisdom from the science of change. New York: HarperCollins

Hutchins, C. Larry. (1996). Systemic thinking: Solving complex problems. Aurora, CO: Professional Development Systems

Masterpasqua, Frank and Phyllis A. Perna. (1997). The psychological meaning of chaos: Translating theory into practise. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Wheatley, Margaret. (1994). Leadership and the new science: Learning about organization from an orderly universe. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
 

The late Donald Schön, formerly a leading social scientist at M.I.T., hypothesized a set of generalizable meta-skills which he felt were at the core of effective professional practice. His work is entitled The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action (1983). His research was based on professionals from the diverse fields of engineering, city planning, management, architecture, and psychotherapy; one chapter is devoted to science-based professions. The essence of his observations is that skilled professionals have the ability to reflect upon their actions. Furthermore, this ability can be cultivated.

Schön's book is critical of Technical Rationality and the assumptions that professionals can learn to apply solutions to problems. He suggested that practice was becoming increasingly complex, and technical thinking no longer applied.

On the whole, their assessment is that professional knowledge is mismatched to the changing character of the situations of practice--the complexity, uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value conflicts which are increasingly perceived as central to the world of professional practice. (p. 14).

Schön's book offers creative ideas for professionals to use to address the increasing complexity of practice. Foremost is reflection upon their work, and the evolving ability to reflect in action. He stated that professionals often have a

...fear of reflection, from a lingering model of practical rationality which is much in need of reflection.... When a practitioner does not reflect on his own inquiry, he keeps his intuitive understanding tacit and is inattentive to the limits of his scope of reflective attention (p. 282).

The practitioner has built up a repertoire of examples, images, understandings, and actions.... A practitioner's repertoire includes the whole of his experience insofar as it is accessible to him for understanding and action.... When a practitioner makes sense of a situation he perceives to be unique, he sees it as something already present in his repertoire (p. 138).

The artistry of a practitioner ... hinges on the range and variety of the repertoire that he brings to unfamiliar situations (p. 140).

What is reflection-in-action?

Much of our daily life consists of spontaneous, intuitive actions which we simply do. Similarly, much of work-life consists of simply knowing and doing. An example is driving, where knowledge is tacit, and is expressed in actions. Reflecting upon our actions is a way of revealing tacit knowledge. Reflection during action is reflection-in-action.

Stimulated by surprise, they turn thought back on action and on the knowing which is implicit in action. ... Skillful action often reveals a "Knowing more than I can say" (p. 50).

The process spirals through stages of appreciation, action, and reappreciation. The unique and uncertain situation comes to be understood through the attempt to change it, and changed through the attempts to understand it (p. 132).

Schön spent considerable time discussing the difficulties of reflection-- for individuals, professions, and society. We are challenged by our education and institutions, and student/teacher relationships rarely probe reflectively. In addition, we exist in a culture which emphasizes Technical Rationality foremost.

Nevertheless, because professionalism is still mainly identified with technical expertise, reflection-in-action is not generally accepted--even by those who do it--as a legitimate form of professional training. ...For them, uncertainty is a threat; its admission is a sign of weakness (p. 69).

When a practitioner does not reflect on his own inquiry, he keeps his intuitive understanding tacit and is inattentive to the limits of his scope of reflective attention.... He is unlikely to get far unless he wants to extend and deepen his reflection-in-action, and unless others help him to see what he has worked to avoid seeing (p. 283).

Surprise, which is essential to learning, is inimical to smooth organizational functioning (p. 327).

Professionals who cultivate the ability to reflect-in-action may be said to be in their work, rather than do their work. As if they were immersed in the complex system, rather than technically manipulating it from outside. Reflecting-in-action generates professionals who re-create themselves and their work as they work. Schön himself summarized it best:

When a practitioner becomes a researcher into his own practise, he engages in continuous self-education... Practise itself is a source of renewal.... Error becomes a source of discovery, not self-defense (p. 299).

Here are "Do-It-Yourself" (DIY) instructions. References are given as entry points to often large bodies of literature. I hope you find these works as stimulating and exhilarating as I have. This is the electronic equivalent of lending a book.

Buddhist teachings are not about metaphysics; they are practical advice for living ones life. Meditation is a good place from which to begin understanding Buddhism.

For information about vipassana (insight) meditation, see http://www.dharma.org. This is the combined website for the insight Meditation Society (IMS) and the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies in Barre, Massachusetts. It also has links to information about retreat centres and teachers, including instruction on audio-tape. Spirit Rock, in California, is the western centre, started by IMS teachers: see http://www.spiritrock.org.

IMS teachers lead meditation retreats at Cloud Mountain Retreat Center, a non-sectarian dharma retreat centre in southern Washington state - http://www.cloudmountain.org. For more information about vipassana in the Seattle area, see http://www.seattleinsight.org. IMS teachers occasionally lead retreats on Cortes Island, off the British Columbia coast. For more information see http://www.hollyhock.bc.ca.

In the southwest of British Columbia, the IMS/Spirit Rock affiliated teacher is Adrianne Ross, M.D. She teaches meditation and mindfulness-based stress-reduction, and leads retreats. (604)873-0687

In the Lower Mainland of B.C., contact the Westcoast Dharma Society at #2 - 2224 Larch Street, Vancouver, B.C. V6K 3P7.

(DIY) Chaos Theory

Briggs, John and F. David Peat. (1999). Seven life lessons of chaos: Timeless wisdom from the science of change. New York: HarperCollins.

(DIY) Complex Systems

Hutchins, C. Larry. (1996). Systemic thinking: Solving complex problems. Aurora, CO: Professional Development Systems.

Highly recommended for newcomers to the field, yet has lots to offer those experienced with complex systems.

International Society for the Systems Sciences. http://www.isss.org  An extensive collection of material about the broad range of systems, including a Primer Project.

(DIY) Management

"Henry Mintzberg in Conversation" from CBC's Ideas program. Available in transcript or audio from http://radio.cbc.ca/programs/ideas

(DIY) Mindfulness

Kabat-Zinn, Jon. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.

Kabat-Zinn, Jon. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Delta.

(DIY) Phenomenology

Giorgi, Amadeo. (1970). Psychology as a human science. New York: Harper and Row.

(DIY) Qualitative Research

Denzin, Norman, and Yvonna Lincoln (eds). (1994). The handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

A daunting tome on first glance, but highly accessible. Short chapters on many topics.

(DIY) Being Human, including parenting, partnering, work, and learning.

Kegan, Robert. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

If you only read one book in the next ten years, make it this one!

It also appears on the list, Essential Books for the Conscious World Builder, at World Builders Co. Book Store. http://www.buildtheworld.com/essentbks.htm

(DIY) Reflective Practice

Schön, Donald (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic.

Briggs, John and F. David Peat. (1999). Seven life lessons of chaos: Timeless wisdom from the science of change. New York: HarperCollins.

Denzin, Norman, and Yvonna Lincoln (eds). (1994). The handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Giorgi, Amadeo. (1970). Psychology as a human science. New York: Harper and Row.

Goldberg, Michael A. 1989. On systemic balance: Flexibility and stability in social, economic, and environmental systems. Praeger: New York.

Hutchins, C. Larry. (1996). Systemic thinking: Solving complex problems. Aurora, CO: Professional Development Systems.

Kegan, Robert. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Kvale, Steiner (1996) InterViews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Langer, Ellen J. (1989). Mindfulness. New York: Addison-Wesley.

Masterpasqua, Frank and Phyllis A. Perna. (1997). The psychological meaning of chaos: Translating theory into practise. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Schön, Peter. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic.

Senge, Peter M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.

Wheatley, Margaret. (1994). Leadership and the new science: Learning about organization from an orderly universe. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Wheatley, Margaret, and Myron Kellner-Rogers. (1996). A simpler way. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.